Beyond Pollution: Microplastics as an Emerging Health Hazard

• Maryam Latif

  Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2992-2250

• Nadeem Sheikh

  Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9503-9538

• Amin Arif

  Department of Zoology, Govt. M.A.O. College, Lahore, Pakistan

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3897-0518

• Naseer Kawish

  Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4492-411X

• Eiman Sehar

  Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5848-9302

• Aqsa Batool

  Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7191-7922

• Iqra Aslam

  Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5209-2672

The long-term existence of microplastics in biosphere and the sharp rise in yearly emissions have prompted concerns about the possible health effects on humans. The micro plastics (MPs) refer to plastic fibers, films and particles, which are less than five millimeters in diameter. The human contact with microplastics has become considerably increased due to the increase in the consumption of single-use food packaging and wrapping material. MPs have been identified in the human blood, excrement, and placenta. MPs and its derivatives influence the human health greatly because they cause the inflammation of the gastrointestinal and respiratory system, imbalances the body hormones level resulting in reproductive disorders, and cardiovascular diseases to increase. The overall toxicological investigations related to MPs have continued to increase. This review summarizes the latest toxicological data to relate MPs and human health, and the negative outcomes of MPs with their toxicity mechanism. The study will improve the knowledge in terms of health hazards caused by MPs to be used in comprehensive assessment of toxicity and will establish the fact to define policy actions.

1. Maryam Latif, Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

   Ph.D.

2. Eiman Sehar, Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

   M.S. Researcher

3. Aqsa Batool, Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

   MS Researcher

4. Iqra Aslam, Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan

   MS Researcher

Ageel, H. K., Harrad, S., & Abdallah, M. A. E. (2024). Microplastics in indoor air from Birmingham, UK: Implications for inhalation exposure. Environmental Pollution, 362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124960

Amereh, F., Babaei, M., Eslami, A., Fazelipour, S., & Rafiee, M. (2020). The emerging risk of exposure to nano(micro)plastics on endocrine disturbance and reproductive toxicity: From a hypothetical scenario to a global public health challenge. Environmental Pollution, 261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114158

Barboza, L. G. A., Cózar, A., Gimenez, B. C. G., Barros, T. L., Kershaw, P. J., & Guilhermino, L. (2019). Macroplastics pollution in the marine environment. In World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation Volume III: Ecological Issues and Environmental Impacts. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00019-X

Busch, M., Kämpfer, A. A. M., & Schins, R. P. F. (2021). An inverted in vitro triple culture model of the healthy and inflamed intestine: Adverse effects of polyethylene particles. Chemosphere, 284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131345

Carrieri, V., Varela, Z., Aboal, J. R., De Nicola, F., & Fernández, J. A. (2022). Suitability of aquatic mosses for biomonitoring micro/meso plastics in freshwater ecosystems. Environmental Sciences Europe, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-022-00653-9

Chen, C., Cowger, W., Nava, V., van Emmerik, T. H. M., Leoni, B., Guo, Z. F., Liu, D., He, Y. Q., & Xu, Y. Y. (2024). Wastewater discharge transports riverine microplastics over long distances. Environmental Science and Technology, 58(34). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c02255

Chen, Q., Peng, C., Xie, R., Xu, H., Su, Z., Yilihan, G., Wei, X., Yang, S., Shen, Y., Ye, C., & Jiang, C. (2024). Placental and fetal enrichment of microplastics from disposable paper cups: Implications for metabolic and reproductive health during pregnancy. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135527

Chen, X., Zhuang, J., Chen, Q., Xu, L., Yue, X., & Qiao, D. (2022). Polyvinyl chloride microplastics induced gut barrier dysfunction, microbiota dysbiosis and metabolism disorder in adult mice. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113809

Cheng, W., Li, X., Zhou, Y., Yu, H., Xie, Y., Guo, H., Wang, H., Li, Y., Feng, Y., & Wang, Y. (2022). Polystyrene microplastics induce hepatotoxicity and disrupt lipid metabolism in the liver organoids. Science of the Total Environment, 806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150328

Chouchene, K., Rocha-Santos, T., & Ksibi, M. (2021). Types, occurrence, and distribution of microplastics and metals contamination in sediments from southwest of Kerkennah archipelago, Tunisia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(34). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09938-z

Chowdhury, S. R., Dey, A., Mondal, S., & Gautam, M. K. (2024). Environmental microplastics and nanoplastics: Effects on cardiovascular system. Toxicologie Analytique et Clinique, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxac.2023.11.006

da Silva Brito, W. A., Mutter, F., Wende, K., Cecchini, A. L., Schmidt, A., & Bekeschus, S. (2022). Consequences of nano and microplastic exposure in rodent models: the known and unknown. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-022-00473-y

de Sá, L. C., Oliveira, M., Ribeiro, F., Rocha, T. L., & Futter, M. N. (2018). Studies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future? Science of the Total Environment, 645, 1029-39 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.207

Florance, I., Chandrasekaran, N., Gopinath, P. M., & Mukherjee, A. (2022). Exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics impairs lipid metabolism in human and murine macrophages in vitro. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113612

Fournier, E., Leveque, M., Ruiz, P., Ratel, J., Durif, C., Chalancon, S., Amiard, F., Edely, M., Bezirard, V., Gaultier, E., Lamas, B., Houdeau, E., Lagarde, F., Engel, E., Etienne-Mesmin, L., Blanquet-Diot, S., & Mercier-Bonin, M. (2023). Microplastics: What happens in the human digestive tract? First evidences in adults using in vitro gut models. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130010

Hernandez, L. M., Xu, E. G., Larsson, H. C. E., Tahara, R., Maisuria, V. B., & Tufenkji, N. (2019). Plastic teabags release billions of microparticles and nanoparticles into tea. Environmental Science and Technology, 53(21). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b02540

Hou, B., Wang, F., Liu, T., & Wang, Z. (2021). Reproductive toxicity of polystyrene microplastics: In vivo experimental study on testicular toxicity in mice. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124028

Hou, J., Lei, Z., Cui, L., Hou, Y., Yang, L., An, R., Wang, Q., Li, S., Zhang, H., & Zhang, L. (2021). Polystyrene microplastics lead to pyroptosis and apoptosis of ovarian granulosa cells via NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling pathway in rats. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112012

Hu, J., Zuo, J., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Ai, X., Zhang, J., Gong, D., & Sun, D. (2022). Effects of secondary polyethylene microplastic exposure on crucian (Carassius carassius) growth, liver damage, and gut microbiome composition. Science of the Total Environment, 802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149736

Hu, T. Y., & Kuan, W. H. (2026). Human activity shapes microplastics and water quality in an endangered salmon habitat. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-025-06960-x

Huang, D., Zhang, Y., Long, J., Yang, X., Bao, L., Yang, Z., Wu, B., Si, R., Zhao, W., Peng, C., Wang, A., & Yan, D. (2022). Polystyrene microplastic exposure induces insulin resistance in mice via dysbacteriosis and pro-inflammation. Science of the Total Environment, 838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155937

Huang, J., Zou, L., Bao, M., Feng, Q., Xia, W., & Zhu, C. (2023). Toxicity of polystyrene nanoparticles for mouse ovary and cultured human granulosa cells. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114371

Iheanacho, S. C., & Odo, G. E. (2020). Dietary exposure to polyvinyl chloride microparticles induced oxidative stress and hepatic damage in Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822). Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(17). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08611-9

Jin, H., Ma, T., Sha, X., Liu, Z., Zhou, Y., Meng, X., Chen, Y., Han, X., & Ding, J. (2021). Polystyrene microplastics induced male reproductive toxicity in mice. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123430

Jin, H., Yan, M., Pan, C., Liu, Z., Sha, X., Jiang, C., Li, L., Pan, M., Li, D., Han, X., & Ding, J. (2022). Chronic exposure to polystyrene microplastics induced male reproductive toxicity and decreased testosterone levels via the LH-mediated LHR/cAMP/PKA/StAR pathway. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-022-00453-2

Kadac-Czapska, K., Ośko, J., Nowak, N., Jażdżewska, K., Kowalczyk, P., & Grembecka, M. (2025). Unseen hazards—toxicological effects and human health impacts of nanoplastics and microplastics. Applied Sciences, 15(18). https://doi.org/10.3390/app151810146

Karali, N., Khanna, N., & Shah, N. (2024). Climate impact of primary plastic production. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

Kosuth, M., Mason, S. A., & Wattenberg, E. V. (2018). Anthropogenic contamination of tap water, beer, and sea salt. PLoS ONE, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194970

Kutralam-Muniasamy, G., Pérez-Guevara, F., Elizalde-Martínez, I., & Shruti, V. C. (2020). Branded milks – Are they immune from microplastics contamination? Science of the Total Environment, 714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136823

Kwon, J. H., Kim, J. W., Pham, T. D., Tarafdar, A., Hong, S., Chun, S. H., Lee, S. H., Kang, D. Y., Kim, J. Y., Kim, S. Bin, & Jung, J. (2020). Microplastics in food: A review on analytical methods and challenges. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186710

Li, B., Ding, Y., Cheng, X., Sheng, D., Xu, Z., Rong, Q., Wu, Y., Zhao, H., Ji, X., & Zhang, Y. (2020). Polyethylene microplastics affect the distribution of gut microbiota and inflammation development in mice. Chemosphere, 244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125492

Li, D., Shi, Y., Yang, L., Xiao, L., Kehoe, D. K., Gun’ko, Y. K., Boland, J. J., & Wang, J. J. (2020). Microplastic release from the degradation of polypropylene feeding bottles during infant formula preparation. Nature Food, 1(11). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-00171-y

Li, S., Ma, Y., Ye, S., Su, Y., Hu, D., & Xiao, F. (2022). Endogenous hydrogen sulfide counteracts polystyrene nanoplastics-induced mitochondrial apoptosis and excessive autophagy via regulating Nrf2 and PGC-1α signaling pathway in mouse spermatocyte-derived GC-2spd(ts) cells. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2022.113071

Liu, Z., Zhuan, Q., Zhang, L., Meng, L., Fu, X., & Hou, Y. (2022). Polystyrene microplastics induced female reproductive toxicity in mice. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127629

Luo, T., Zhang, Y., Wang, C., Wang, X., Zhou, J., Shen, M., Zhao, Y., Fu, Z., & Jin, Y. (2019). Maternal exposure to different sizes of polystyrene microplastics during gestation causes metabolic disorders in their offspring. Environmental Pollution, 255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113122

Mangin, P. H., Neeves, K. B., Lam, W. A., Cosemans, J. M. E. M., Korin, N., Kerrigan, S. W., & Panteleev, M. A. (2021). In vitro flow-based assay: From simple toward more sophisticated models for mimicking hemostasis and thrombosis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.15143

Möller, J. N., Löder, M. G. J., & Laforsch, C. (2020). Finding microplastics in soils: A review of analytical methods. Environmental Science and Technology, 54(4). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b04618

Okamura, T., Hamaguchi, M., Hasegawa, Y., Hashimoto, Y., Majima, S., Senmaru, T., Ushigome, E., Nakanishi, N., Asano, M., Yamazaki, M., Sasano, R., Nakanishi, Y., Seno, H., Takano, H., & Fukui, M. (2023). Oral exposure to polystyrene microplastics of mice on a normal or high-fat diet and intestinal and metabolic outcomes. Environmental Health Perspectives, 131(2). https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11072

Oßmann, B. E., Sarau, G., Holtmannspötter, H., Pischetsrieder, M., Christiansen, S. H., & Dicke, W. (2018). Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water. Water Research, 141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.027

Park, S., Kim, M. J., Shin, J. H., Kim, E., Son, M., & Lee, S. (2025). Chronic PET-microplastic exposure: Disruption of gut–liver homeostasis and risk of hepatic steatosis. Advanced Science. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202512030

Priya, A., Anusha, G., Thanigaivel, S., Karthick, A., Mohanavel, V., Velmurugan, P., Balasubramanian, B., Ravichandran, M., Kamyab, H., Kirpichnikova, I. M., & Chelliapan, S. (2023). Removing microplastics from wastewater using leading-edge treatment technologies: a solution to microplastic pollution—a review. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering, 46(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00449-022-02715-x

Ragusa, A., Svelato, A., Santacroce, C., Catalano, P., Notarstefano, V., Carnevali, O., Papa, F., Rongioletti, M. C. A., Baiocco, F., Draghi, S., D’Amore, E., Rinaldo, D., Matta, M., & Giorgini, E. (2021). Plasticenta: First evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environment International, 146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274

Schwabl, P., Koppel, S., Konigshofer, P., Bucsics, T., Trauner, M., Reiberger, T., & Liebmann, B. (2019). Detection of various microplastics in human stool: A prospective case series. Annals of Internal Medicine, 171(7). https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-0618

Schymanski, D., Goldbeck, C., Humpf, H. U., & Fürst, P. (2018). Analysis of microplastics in water by micro-Raman spectroscopy: Release of plastic particles from different packaging into mineral water. Water Research, 129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.011

Senathirajah, K., Attwood, S., Bhagwat, G., Carbery, M., Wilson, S., & Palanisami, T. (2021). Estimation of the mass of microplastics ingested – A pivotal first step towards human health risk assessment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124004

Song, Z., Wu, H., Fang, X., Feng, X., & Zhou, L. (2024). The cardiovascular toxicity of polystyrene microplastics in rats: based on untargeted metabolomics analysis. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2024.1336369

Stock, V., Böhmert, L., Coban, G., Tyra, G., Vollbrecht, M. L., Voss, L., Paul, M. B., Braeuning, A., & Sieg, H. (2022). Microplastics and nanoplastics: Size, surface and dispersant – What causes the effect? Toxicology in Vitro, 80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2022.105314

Sun, M., Ding, R., Ma, Y., Sun, Q., Ren, X., Sun, Z., & Duan, J. (2021). Cardiovascular toxicity assessment of polyethylene nanoplastics on developing zebrafish embryos. Chemosphere, 282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131124

Vlacil, A. K., Banfer, S., Jacob, R., Trippel, N., Kuzu, I., Schieffer, B., & Grote, K. (2021). Polystyrene microplastic particles induce endothelial activation. PLoS ONE, 16(11). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260181

Wang, X., Jia, Z., Zhou, X., Su, L., Wang, M., Wang, T., & Zhang, H. (2023). Nanoplastic-induced vascular endothelial injury and coagulation dysfunction in mice. Science of the Total Environment, 865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161271

Weber, C. J., Opp, C., Prume, J. A., Koch, M., & Chifflard, P. (2022). Meso- and microplastic distribution and spatial connections to metal contaminations in highly cultivated and urbanised floodplain soilscapes – a case study from the Nidda River (Germany). Microplastics and Nanoplastics, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43591-022-00044-0

Wen, S., Chen, Y., Tang, Y., Zhao, Y., Liu, S., You, T., & Xu, H. (2023). Male reproductive toxicity of polystyrene microplastics: Study on the endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling pathway. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2022.113577

Wu, H., Liu, Q., Yang, N., & Xu, S. (2023). Polystyrene-microplastics and DEHP co-exposure induced DNA damage, cell cycle arrest and necroptosis of ovarian granulosa cells in mice by promoting ROS production. Science of the Total Environment, 871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161962

Wu, S., Wu, M., Tian, D., Qiu, L., & Li, T. (2020). Effects of polystyrene microbeads on cytotoxicity and transcriptomic profiles in human Caco-2 cells. Environmental Toxicology, 35(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.22885

Xie, X., Deng, T., Duan, J., Xie, J., Yuan, J., & Chen, M. (2020). Exposure to polystyrene microplastics causes reproductive toxicity through oxidative stress and activation of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110133

Yan, Z., Liu, Y., Zhang, T., Zhang, F., Ren, H., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Analysis of Microplastics in Human Feces Reveals a Correlation between Fecal Microplastics and Inflammatory Bowel Disease Status. Environmental Science and Technology, 56(1). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c03924

Yang, J., Karbalaei, S., Hussein, S. M., Ahmad, A. F., Walker, T. R., & Salimi, K. (2023). Biochemical effects of polypropylene microplastics on red tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) after individual and combined exposure with boron. Environmental Sciences Europe, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-023-00771-y

Yang, Y. F., Cheng, S. Y., Wang, Y. L., Yue, Z. P., Yu, Y. X., Chen, Y. Z., Wang, W. K., Xu, Z. R., Qi, Z. Q., & Liu, Y. (2024). Accumulated inflammation and fibrosis participate in atrazine induced ovary toxicity in mice. Environmental Pollution, 360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124672

Yin, J., Ju, Y., Qian, H., Wang, J., Miao, X., Zhu, Y., Zhou, L., & Ye, L. (2022). Nanoplastics and Microplastics May Be Damaging Our Livers. Toxics, 10(10), 586 https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10100586

Zhang, H., Gao, Y., Zheng, Y., Zheng, J., He, J., Shi, J., Zhang, K., Song, Y., Zhang, J., Shi, X., Zhang, R., Ding, Y., Jing, Y., Xu, K., & Wang, J. (2024). Potential toxicity of microplastics on vertebrate liver: A systematic review and meta–analysis. In Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.117166

Zhang, J., Wang, L., Trasande, L., & Kannan, K. (2021). Occurrence of polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate microplastics in infant and adult feces. Environmental Science and Technology Letters, 8(11). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00559

Zhao, J., Gomes, D., Jin, L., Mathis, S. P., Li, X., Rouchka, E. C., Bodduluri, H., Conklin, D. J., & O’Toole, T. E. (2022). Polystyrene bead ingestion promotes adiposity and cardiometabolic disease in mice. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113239

Zhao, Q., Zhu, L., Weng, J., Jin, Z., Cao, Y., Jiang, H., & Zhang, Z. (2023). Detection and characterization of microplastics in the human testis and semen. Science of the Total Environment, 877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162713

Zhou, L., Yu, Z., Xia, Y., Cheng, S., Gao, J., Sun, W., Jiang, X., Zhang, J., Mao, L., Qin, X., Zou, Z., Qiu, J., & Chen, C. (2022). Repression of autophagy leads to acrosome biogenesis disruption caused by a sub-chronic oral administration of polystyrene nanoparticles. Environment International, 163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107220

• PDF

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.