Harnessing Pakistan’s Biodiversity for Brain Health: Traditional Medicine and Modern Neuropharmacology

• Numra Shehzadi

  Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0002-1921-7499

• Madiha Ahmad

  Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7256-3210

• Hajra Ashraf

  Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6179-4649

• Zahera Akhter

  Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4926-061X

• Naila Naz

  Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

  Author

  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8864-0250

through phytochemicals having least adverse reactions as compared to synthetic medicines. In Pakistan, neurological diseases account for a large percentage of the total health burden, with an estimated prevalence of epilepsy is approximately 2%, Alzheimer's disease is ~1%, and schizophrenia is 1.5%. Around 10 percent of the population with neurological disorders is dependent on herbal products.

Medicinal plants used in the traditional medicine systems of Pakistan possess numerous neuroprotective and cognitive-boosting agents. Four of the most studied plants include Bacopa pinnaea, Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), Melissa officinalis, and Turmeric, besides to many other local plants. Each plant contains multiple phytoconstituents (e.g. flavonoids, bacosides, alkaloids, and curcuminoids), that possess antioxidant effects and modulates the inflammation pathways.

Ethnobotanical research throughout Pakistan has identified over one hundred species of plants reported to be used for treating neurological diseases. These belonged to four plant families: Solanaceae (nightshade), Asteraceae (daisy), Lamiaceae (mint), and Papaveraceae (poppy).

This article elaborates the mode of action of polyphenolic, terpenoidal and alkaloidal compounds that leads to different biological effects, including their antioxidant properties, neuroprotective role, neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. In addition, the need to support sustainable harvesting and conservation of biodiversity in Pakistan's incredibly diverse but rapidly disappearing flora is highlighted by this review. The combination of validated traditional herbal medicines and validated treatments for cognitive or neurodegenerative disorders may provide an effective and sustainably accessible means of treating these conditions, while also being cost-effective.

1. Numra Shehzadi, Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

   Student at

   Department of Biomedicine, 

2. Madiha Ahmad, Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

   student at 

   Department of Biomedicine, 

3. Hajra Ashraf, Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

   student at 

   Department of Biomedicine, 

4. Zahera Akhter, Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

   student at 

   Department of Biomedicine, 

5. Naila Naz, Department of Biomedicine, Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

   Professor and Head of Department Research

Adebayo, S. A., Dzoyem, J. P., Shai, L. J., & Eloff, J. N. (2015). The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of 25 plant species used traditionally to treat pain in southern African. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-015-0669-5

Aggarwal, N. T., Tripathi, M., Dodge, H. H., Alladi, S., & Anstey, K. J. (2012). Trends in Alzheimer's disease and dementia in the asian-pacific region. International Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2012, 171327. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/171327

Ahmad, T., Bustam, M. A., Irfan, M., Moniruzzaman, M., Asghar, H. M. A., & Bhattacharjee, S. (2019). Mechanistic investigation of phytochemicals involved in green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using aqueous Elaeis guineensis leaves extract: Role of phenolic compounds and flavonoids. Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry, 66(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/bab.1787

Akhtar, M. A. (2022). Anti-Inflammatory Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh—A Pharmacological Evaluation. Frontiers in Pharmacology 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.809324

Al Mamun, A., Shao, C., Geng, P., Wang, S., & Xiao, J. (2024). Polyphenols Targeting NF-κB Pathway in Neurological Disorders: What We Know So Far? International Journal of Biological Sciences, 20(4). https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.90982

Ali, S., Zehra, M., Fatima, T., & Nadeem, A. (2023). Advancing dementia care in Pakistan: challenges and the way forward. Frontiers in Dementia, 2, 1241927. https://doi.org/10.3389/frdem.2023.1241927

Awan, S., Shafqat, S., Kamal, A. K., Sonawalla, A., Siddiqui, S., Siddiqui, F., & Wasay, M. (2017). Pattern of neurological diseases in adult outpatient neurology clinics in tertiary care hospital. BMC Research Notes, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-017-2873-5

Ayaz, M., Sadiq, A., Junaid, M., Ullah, F., Subhan, F., & Ahmed, J. (2017). Neuroprotective and anti-aging potentials of essential oils from aromatic and medicinal plants. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 9(5). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2017.00168

Block, M. L., Zecca, L., & Hong, J. S. (2007). Microglia-mediated neurotoxicity: Uncovering the molecular mechanisms. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2038

Bushra, R., & Aslam, N. (2010). Prevalence of Depression in Karachi, Pakistan. Oman Medical Journal, 25(4), e020. https://doi.org/10.5001/omj.2010.100

Colovic, M. B., Krstic, D. Z., Lazarevic-Pasti, T. D., Bondzic, A. M., & Vasic, V. M. (2013). Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors: Pharmacology and Toxicology. Current Neuropharmacology, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x11311030006

Elufioye, T. O., Berida, T. I., & Habtemariam, S. (2017). Plants-derived neuroprotective agents: cutting the cycle of cell death through multiple mechanisms. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3574012

Fakhri, S., Abbaszadeh, F., Moradi, S. Z., Cao, H., Khan, H., & Xiao, J. (2022). Effects of polyphenols on oxidative stress, inflammation, and interconnected pathways during spinal Cord Injury. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8100195

Fürst, R., & Zündorf, I. (2014). Plant-derived anti-inflammatory compounds: Hopes and disappointments regarding the translation of preclinical knowledge into clinical progress. Mediators of Inflammation 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/146832

Ghosh, S., Singha, P. S., & Ghosh, D. (2023). Neuroprotective compounds from three common medicinal plants of West Bengal, India: a mini review. Exploration of Neuroscience, 2(6). https://doi.org/10.37349/en.2023.00030

Heneka, M. T., Golenbock, D. T., & Latz, E. (2015). Innate immunity in Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Immunology 16(I3). https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.3102

Khairy, A., Ghareeb, D. A., Celik, I., Hammoda, H. M., Zaatout, H. H., & Ibrahim, R. S. (2023). Forecasting of potential anti-inflammatory targets of some immunomodu-latory plants and their constituents using in vitro, molecular docking and network pharmacology-based analysis. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36540-3

Khalid, S., Saeed, S., Kausar, H., & Siddiqui, M. F. (2020). Immune system and types of Immune responses. Pakistan Journal of Health Sciences, 1(1), 17–21. https://doi.org/10.54393/pjhs.v1i01.12

Khan, A. W., Khan, A. U., Shah, S. M. M., Ullah, A., Faheem, M., & Saleem, M. (2019). An Updated List of Neuromedicinal Plants of Pakistan, Their Uses, and Phytochemistry. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2019. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6191505

Khatri, I. A., Iannaccone, S. T., Ilyas, M. S., Abdullah, M., & Saleem, S. (2003). Epidemiology of epilepsy in Pakistan: review of literature. The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, 53(12), 594–597.

Kumar, G. P., & Khanum, F. (2012). Neuroprotective potential of phytochemicals. Pharmacognosy Reviews 6(12). https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.99898

Kumar, G. P., Anilakumar, K. R., & Naveen, S. (2015). Phytochemicals having neuroprotective properties from dietary sources and medicinal herbs. Pharmacognosy Journal 7(1). https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2015.7.1

Li, K., Chen, R., Wang, R., Fan, W., Zhao, N., Yang, Z., & Yan, J. (2026). Neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases: Focusing on the mediation of T lymphocytes. Neural Regeneration Research, 21(5), 1864–1889. https://doi.org/10.4103/NRR.NRR- D-24-01539

Li, X. X., He, G. R., Mu, X., Xu, B., Tian, S., Yu, X., Meng, F. R., Xuan, Z. H., & Du, G. H. (2012). Protective effects of baicalein against rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells and isolated rat brain mitochondria. European Journal of Pharmacology, 674(2–3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.09.181

Mahmood, A., Shaheen, H., Qureshi, R. A., & Yaseen, G. (2011). Ethnomedicinal survey of plants from district Bhimber, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5(11), 2348–2360.

Martin, P., & Nunan, R. (2015). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of repair in acute and chronic wound healing. The British Journal of Dermatology, 173(2), 370–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.13954

Mohamed, I. E., Osman, E. E., Saeed, A., Ming, L. C., Goh, K. W., Razi, P., Abdullah, A. D. I., & Dahab, M. (2024). Plant extracts as emerging modulators of neuroinflammation and immune receptors in Alzheimer's pathogenesis. Heliyon, 10(16), e35943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35943

Nawaz, R., Gul, S., Amin, R., Huma, T., & Al Mughairbi, F. (2020). Overview of schizophrenia research and treatment in Pakistan. Heliyon, 6(11), e05545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05545

Nunes, C. dos R., Arantes, M. B., de Faria Pereira, S. M., da Cruz, L. L., de Souza Passos, M., de Moraes, L. P., Vieira, I. J. C., & de Oliveira, D. B. (2020). Plants as sources of anti-inflammatory agents. Molecules 25(16). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163726

Oguntibeju, O. O. (2018). Medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory activities from selected countries and regions of Africa. Journal of Inflammation Research 11. https://doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S167789

Ojha, R. P., Rastogi, M., Devi, B. P., Agrawal, A., & Dubey, G. P. (2012). Neuroprotective effect of curcuminoids against inflammation-mediated dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the MPTP model of Parkinson’s Disease. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-012-9363-2

Phan, H. T. T., Samarat, K., Takamur, Y., Azo-Oussou, A. F., Nakazono, Y., & Vestergaard, M. C. (2019). Polyphenols modulate Alzheimer’s amyloid beta aggregation in a structure-dependent manner. Nutrients, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040756

Pravin, B., Deshmukh, T., Vijay, P., & Kishanchnad, K. (2013). Review on Citrullus colocynthis. International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Chemistry, 3(1).

Radovanović, K., Gavarić, N., & Aćimović, M. (2023). Anti-inflammatory properties of plants from Serbian traditional medicine. Life 13 (4). https://doi.org/10.3390/life13040874

Rajput, A., Sharma, P., Kumar, N., Kaur, S., & Arora, S. (2023). Neuroprotective activity of novel phenanthrene derivative from Grewia tiliaefolia by in vitro and in silico studies. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29446-7

Rudrapal, M., Khairnar, S. J., Khan, J., Dukhyil, A. Bin, Ansari, M. A., Alomary, M. N., Alshabrmi, F. M., Palai, S., Deb, P. K., & Devi, R. (2022). Dietary polyphenols and their role in oxidative stress-induced human diseases: insights into protective effects, antioxidant potentials and mechanism(s) of action. Frontiers in Pharmacology 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.806470

Scotece, M., & Conde-Aranda, J. (2022). Inflammation in health and disease: new insights and therapeutic avenues. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(15), 8392. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158392

Sharma, V., Sehrawat, N., Sharma, A., Yadav, M., Verma, P., & Sharma, A. K. (2022). Multifaceted antiviral therapeutic potential of dietary flavonoids: Emerging trends and future perspectives. Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry 69(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/bab.2265

Shingala, Z., Chauhan, B., & Baraiya, J. (2021). A review on medicinal plants as a source of anti-inflammatory agents. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.22271/phyto.2021.v10.i6e.14313

Street, R. A., Sidana, J., & Prinsloo, G. (2013). Cichorium intybus: Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/579319

Swarna, S. K., Nivedhitha, M. S., Vishnu Priya, V., Gayathri, R., Selvaraj, J., Madhan, K., & Shyamala Devi, B. (2019). Comparative evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential of ethanolic extract of leaf, bark and flower of Tecoma stans with ibuprofen - An in vitro analysis. Pharmacognosy Journal, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2019.11.170

Ullah, I., Ali, S., Ashraf, F., Hakim, Y., Ali, I., Ullah, A. R., Chattu, V. K., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022). Prevalence of depression and anxiety among general population in Pakistan during COVID-19 lockdown: An online-survey. Current Psychology, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02815-7

Velmurugan, B. K., Rathinasamy, B., Lohanathan, B. P., Thiyagarajan, V., & Weng, C. F. (2018). Neuroprotective role of phytochemicals. Molecules 23(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23102485

Wang, X., Li, M., Cao, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, H., Zhou, X., Li, Q., & Wang, L. (2017). Tenuigenin inhibits LPS-induced inflammatory responses in microglia via activating the Nrf2-mediated HO-1 signaling pathway. European Journal of Pharmacology, 809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.05.004

Winiarska-Mieczan, A., Kwiecień, M., Jachimowicz-Rogowska, K., Donaldson, J., Tomaszewska, E., & Baranowska-Wójcik, E. (2023). Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Neuroprotective Effects of Polyphenols—Polyphenols as an Element of Diet Therapy in Depressive Disorders. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(3), 2258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032258

Yan, L., Guo, M. S., Zhang, Y., Yu, L., Wu, J. M., Tang, Y., Ai, W., Zhu, F. D., Law, B. Y., Chen, Q., Yu, C. L., Wong, V. K., Li, H., Li, M., Zhou, X. G., Qin, D. L., & Wu, A. G. (2022). Dietary Plant Polyphenols as the Potential Drugs in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Current Evidence, Advances, and Opportunities. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2022, 5288698. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5288698

• PDF

Copyright (c) 2025 Numra Shehzadi, Madiha Ahmad, Hajra Ashraf, Zahera Akhter, Naila Naz (Author)

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.